What is the Indus Waters Treaty Between India and Pakistan?

Water is not just a life-sustaining resource—it’s also a powerful geopolitical force. In South Asia, one of the most enduring examples of international cooperation over water is the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), signed between India and Pakistan in 1960. Despite multiple wars, diplomatic tensions, and decades of mistrust, the IWT has stood as a cornerstone of water diplomacy between the two neighbors.

In this blog post, we’ll delve into the origins, structure, and significance of the Indus Waters Treaty, as well as the challenges it faces in the 21st century.

Why Was the Treaty Necessary?

The Indus River system is one of the largest and most vital river systems in the world, with its basin covering parts of India, Pakistan, China, and Afghanistan. The system consists of six major rivers:

• Indus
• Jhelum
• Chenab
• Ravi
• Beas
• Sutlej

When British India was partitioned in 1947, the newly formed countries of India and Pakistan found themselves sharing this critical river system. Initially, a temporary agreement brokered by the British was in place, but it was unsustainable. Water control and access became a contentious issue, especially since Pakistan’s agriculture and economy were heavily dependent on the waters flowing from upstream India.

Recognizing the potential for conflict, the World Bank stepped in to mediate, leading to the formal Indus Waters Treaty (IWT), signed on September 19, 1960, by:

• Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India
• Ayub Khan, President of Pakistan
• W.A.B. Iliff, Vice President of the World Bank (as signatory and guarantor)

Key Provisions of the Treaty

1. Division of Rivers

The most crucial element of the treaty is the allocation of the rivers between the two nations:

• India gets the Eastern Rivers:
  • Ravi
  • Beas
  • Sutlej
• Pakistan gets the Western Rivers:
  • Indus
  • Jhelum
  • Chenab

India was given full control over the eastern rivers for consumptive uses such as irrigation, domestic supply, and industry. Pakistan was allocated the much larger volume of the western rivers.

2. Transition Period

India was required to allow the flow of water from the eastern rivers to Pakistan for a transitional period (up to 10 years) while Pakistan built alternative infrastructure such as dams and canals.

3. Non-Consumptive Rights

India is allowed limited use of the western rivers for:

• Hydropower generation
• Fishing
• Navigation
• Other non-consumptive uses

However, it must not obstruct or significantly alter the flow that goes to Pakistan.

4. The Permanent Indus Commission

To implement the treaty and ensure cooperation, a Permanent Indus Commission was established, comprising one commissioner from each country. They meet regularly to:

• Exchange hydrological data
• Inspect projects
• Address concerns and disputes

5. Dispute Resolution Mechanism

The treaty includes a three-tiered dispute resolution mechanism:

• Bilateral negotiations through the Permanent Indus Commission
• Neutral expert (appointed by the World Bank) for technical disputes
• Court of Arbitration for legal matters

Projects and Infrastructure

The treaty allowed both nations to build specific types of water infrastructure. India, for instance, has constructed hydropower projects like:

• Baglihar Dam (Jhelum)
• Kishanganga Project (Neelum River, tributary of Jhelum)
• Ratle Dam (Chenab)

Pakistan, with financial and technical assistance from the World Bank and others, constructed large-scale projects such as:

• Mangla Dam
• Tarbela Dam

Challenges and Criticism

Despite its success, the Indus Waters Treaty faces significant challenges today:

1. Geopolitical Tensions

Following terrorist attacks and military skirmishes, India has repeatedly questioned the viability of the treaty. In 2016, after the Uri attack, India threatened to “maximize” its usage of the western rivers, within treaty limits.

2. Climate Change and Water Scarcity

With glacial melt, changing rainfall patterns, and population growth, the pressure on the Indus basin is mounting. Both countries face water stress, and there’s growing debate over whether the treaty is equipped to handle future environmental challenges.

3. Disputes Over Infrastructure

Projects like Kishanganga and Baglihar have led to Pakistan raising objections, fearing they violate the treaty. These cases have been brought before neutral experts and the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

4. Aging Framework

Critics argue that the treaty, while strong, is outdated—it doesn’t adequately address:

• Groundwater usage
• Ecological concerns
• Climate resilience
• Sedimentation and water quality

Why the Indus Waters Treaty Still Matters

In a region where diplomacy is often fragile, the Indus Waters Treaty has remained a rare symbol of cooperation. For over six decades, it has helped prevent water wars between two nuclear-armed neighbors. It serves as:

• A model for transboundary water sharing
• A legal safeguard for Pakistan’s water rights
• A mechanism for continuous dialogue, even in tense times

The Indus Waters Treaty is more than a water-sharing agreement; it is a testament to the power of diplomacy and a shared understanding of the need for stability in a water-scarce region. As India and Pakistan face the twin threats of climate change and rising demand, the treaty will need modernization and stronger environmental governance—but its spirit of cooperation must endure.